Protected particles of cathode active materials for lithium batteries

ABSTRACT

Provided is a lithium battery cathode electrode comprising multiple particulates of a cathode active material, wherein at least a particulate comprises one or a plurality of particles of a cathode active material being encapsulated by a thin layer of a sulfonated elastomer, wherein the encapsulating thin layer of sulfonated elastomer has a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, a fully recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 800%, and a lithium ion conductivity from 10 −7  S/cm to 5×10 −2  S/cm. The encapsulating layer may further contain an electron-conducting additive and/or a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in the sulfonated elastomer.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to the field of rechargeable lithium battery and, more particularly, to the cathode active materials in the form of particulates containing transition metal oxide-filled elastomer-encapsulated cathode active material particles and the method of producing same.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

A unit cell or building block of a lithium-ion battery is typically composed of an anode current collector, an anode or negative electrode layer (containing an anode active material responsible for storing lithium therein, a conductive additive, and a resin binder), an electrolyte and porous separator, a cathode or positive electrode layer (containing a cathode active material responsible for storing lithium therein, a conductive additive, and a resin binder), and a separate cathode current collector. The electrolyte is in ionic contact with both the anode active material and the cathode active material. A porous separator is not required if the electrolyte is a solid-state electrolyte.

The binder in the anode layer is used to bond the anode active material (e.g. graphite or Si particles) and a conductive filler (e.g. carbon black particles or carbon nanotube) together to form an anode layer of structural integrity, and to bond the anode layer to a separate anode current collector, which acts to collect electrons from the anode active material when the battery is discharged. In other words, in the negative electrode (anode) side of the battery, there are typically four different materials involved: an anode active material, a conductive additive, a resin binder (e.g. polyvinylidine fluoride, PVDF, or styrene-butadiene rubber, SBR), and an anode current collector (typically a sheet of Cu foil). Typically the former three materials form a separate, discrete anode active material layer (or, simply, anode layer) and the latter one forms another discrete layer (current collector layer). A binder resin (e.g. PVDF or PTFE) is also used in the cathode to bond cathode active materials and conductive additive particles together to form a cathode active layer of structural integrity. The same resin binder also acts to bond this cathode active layer to a cathode current collector (e.g. Al foil).

Historically, lithium-ion batteries actually evolved from rechargeable “lithium metal batteries” that use lithium (Li) metal as the anode and a Li intercalation compound (e.g. MoS₂) as the cathode. Li metal is an ideal anode material due to its light weight (the lightest metal), high electronegativity (−3.04 V vs. the standard hydrogen electrode), and high theoretical capacity (3,860 mAh/g). Based on these outstanding properties, lithium metal batteries were proposed 40 years ago as an ideal system for high energy-density applications.

Due to some safety concerns (e.g. lithium dendrite formation and internal shorting) of pure lithium metal, graphite was implemented as an anode active material in place of the lithium metal to produce the current lithium-ion batteries. The past two decades have witnessed a continuous improvement in Li-ion batteries in terms of energy density, rate capability, and safety. However, the use of graphite-based anodes in Li-ion batteries has several significant drawbacks: low specific capacity (theoretical capacity of 372 mAh/g as opposed to 3,860 mAh/g for Li metal), long Li intercalation time (e.g. low solid-state diffusion coefficients of Li in and out of graphite and inorganic oxide particles) requiring long recharge times (e.g. 7 hours for electric vehicle batteries), inability to deliver high pulse power (power density<0.5 kW/kg), and necessity to use prelithiated cathodes (e.g. lithium cobalt oxide, as opposed to cobalt oxide), thereby limiting the choice of available cathode materials.

Further, these commonly used cathode active materials have a relatively low specific capacity (typically <220 mAh/g). These factors have contributed to the two major shortcomings of today's Li-ion batteries—a low energy density (typically 150-220 Wh/kg_(cell)) and low power density (typically <0.5 kW/kg). In addition, even though the lithium metal anode has been replaced by an intercalation compound (e.g. graphite) and, hence, there is little or no lithium dendrite issue in the lithium-ion battery, the battery safety issue has not gone away. There have been no short of incidents involving lithium-ion batteries catching fire or exploding. To sum it up, battery scientists have been frustrated with the low energy density, inadequate cycle life, and flammability of lithium-ion cells for over three decades!

There have been tremendous efforts made in battery industry and research community to improve existing cathode materials and develop new cathode compositions. However, current and emerging cathode active materials for lithium secondary batteries still suffer from the following serious drawbacks:

-   -   (1) The most commonly used cathode active materials (e.g.         lithium transition metal oxides) contain a transition metal         (e.g. Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, etc.) that is a powerful catalyst that can         promote undesirable chemical reactions inside a battery (e.g.         decomposition of electrolyte). These cathode active materials         also contain a high oxygen content that could assist in the         progression of thermal runaway and provide oxygen for         electrolyte oxidation, increasing the danger of explosion or         fire hazard. This is a serious problem that has hampered the         widespread implementation of electric vehicles.     -   (2) Most of promising organic or polymeric cathode active         materials are either soluble in the commonly used electrolytes         or are reactive with these electrolytes. Dissolution of active         material in the electrolyte results in a continuing loss of the         active material. Undesirable reactions between the active         material and the electrolyte lead to graduate depletion of the         electrolyte and the active material in the battery cell. All         these phenomena lead to capacity loss of the battery and         shortened cycle life.     -   (3) The practical capacity achievable with current cathode         materials (e.g. lithium iron phosphate and lithium transition         metal oxides) has been limited to the range of 150-250 mAh/g         and, in most cases, less than 200 mAh/g. Additionally, emerging         high-capacity cathode active materials (e.g. FeF₃) still cannot         deliver a long battery cycle life.         -   High-capacity cathode active materials, such as metal             fluoride, metal chloride, and lithium transition metal             silicide, can undergo large volume expansion and shrinkage             during the discharge and charge of a lithium battery. These             repeated volume changes lead to structural instability of             the cathode, breakage of the normally weak bond between the             binder resin and the active material, fragmentation of             active material particles, delamination between the cathode             active material layer and the current collector, and             interruption of electron-conducting pathways. These             high-capacity cathodes include CoF₃, MnF₃, FeF₃, VF₃, VOF₃,             TiF₃, BiF₃, NiF₂, FeF₂, CuF₂, CuF, SnF₂, AgF, CuCl₂, FeCl₃,             MnCl₂, etc. High-capacity cathode active materials also             include a lithium transition metal silicate, Li₂MSiO₄ or             Li₂Ma_(x)Mb_(y)SiO₄, wherein M and Ma are selected from Fe,             Mn, Co, Ni, V, or VO; Mb is selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V,             Ti, Al, B, Sn, or Bi; and x+y≤1.

Hence, there is an urgent and continuing need for a new cathode active material and a cathode electrode (e.g. a cathode active material layer) that enable a lithium secondary battery to deliver a long cycle life and higher energy density. There is also a need for a method of readily and easily producing such a material in large quantities. Thus, it is a primary object of the present invention to meet these needs and address the issues associated the rapid capacity decay of a lithium battery.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Herein reported is a cathode active material layer or electrode (a cathode electrode or positive electrode) for a lithium battery that contains a very unique class of cathode active materials. The cathode active material is in a form of particulates, wherein at least a particulate contains one or a plurality of particles of a cathode active material being embraced or encapsulated by a thin layer of a sulfonated elastomer. This new class of material is capable of overcoming the cathode-induced rapid capacity decay problem commonly associated with a rechargeable lithium battery.

The cathode electrode comprises multiple particulates of a cathode active material, wherein at least a particulate is composed of one or a plurality of the cathode active material particles that are encapsulated by a thin layer of sulfonated elastomer, wherein the encapsulating thin layer of sulfonated elastomer has a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, a fully recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 800%, and a lithium ion conductivity from 10⁻⁷ S/cm to 5×10⁻² S/cm.

The encapsulating thin layer of sulfonated elastomer has a fully recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 800% (more typically from 5% to 300% and most typically from 10% to 150%), a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, and a lithium ion conductivity from 10⁻⁷ S/cm to 5×10⁻² S/cm (more typically from 10⁻⁵ S/cm to 10⁻³ S/cm) when measured at room temperature on a cast thin film 20 μm thick. Preferably, this thin encapsulating layer also has an electrical conductivity from 10⁻⁷ S/cm to 100 S/cm (more typically from 10⁻³ S/cm to 10 S/cm when an electron-conducting additive is added into the sulfonated elastomer matrix material).

Preferably, the elastomeric matrix material contains a sulfonated version of an elastomer selected from natural polyisoprene, synthetic polyisoprene, polybutadiene, chloroprene rubber, polychloroprene, butyl rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, nitrile rubber, ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene rubber, metallocene-based poly(ethylene-co-octene) (POE) elastomer, poly(ethylene-co-butene) (PBE) elastomer, styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS) elastomer, epichlorohydrin rubber, polyacrylic rubber, silicone rubber, fluorosilicone rubber, perfluoroelastomers, polyether block amides, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene-vinyl acetate, thermoplastic elastomer, protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, or a combination thereof. These sulfonated elastomers or rubbers, when present without an additive, exhibit a high elasticity (having a fully recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 800%). In other words, they can be stretched up to 800% (8 times of the original length when under tension) and, upon release of the tensile stress, they can fully recover back to the original dimension. By adding from 0.01% to 50% by weight of an additive (e.g. graphene sheets, CNTs, carbon black, lithium salt, etc.) dispersed in a sulfonated elastomeric matrix material, the fully recoverable tensile strains are typically reduced down to 2%-500% (more typically from 5% to 300% and most typically from 10% to 150%).

In certain preferred embodiments, the sulfonated elastomer further contains an electron-conducting filler dispersed in the sulfonated elastomer wherein the electron-conducting filler is selected from a carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, nanocarbon particle, metal nanoparticle, metal nanowire, electron-conducting polymer, graphene, or a combination thereof. The graphene may be preferably selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, nitrogenated graphene, hydrogenated graphene, doped graphene, functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof and the graphene preferably comprises single-layer graphene or few-layer graphene, wherein the few-layer graphene is defined as a graphene platelet formed of less than 10 graphene planes. The electron-conducting polymer is preferably selected from (but not limited to) polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

Preferably, the graphene sheets have a lateral dimension (length or width) from 5 nm to 5 μm, more preferably from 10 nm to 1 μm, and most preferably from 10 nm to 300 nm. Shorter graphene sheets allow for easier encapsulation and enable faster lithium ion transport through the inorganic filler-reinforced elastomer-based encapsulating layer.

Preferably, the particulates are substantially or essentially spherical or ellipsoidal in shape. Also preferably, the particulate have a diameter or thickness smaller than 30 μm, more preferably smaller than 20 μm, and most preferably smaller than 10 μm.

The cathode active material particulate may contain a cathode active material selected from an inorganic material, an organic material, a polymeric material, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material may be selected from a metal oxide, metal phosphate, metal silicide, metal selenide, transition metal sulfide, sulfur, lithium polysulfide, selenium, lithium selenide, or a combination thereof.

The inorganic material may be selected from a lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, lithium metal silicide, or a combination thereof.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material-based cathode active material is selected from a metal fluoride or metal chloride including the group consisting of CoF₃, MnF₃, FeF₃, VF₃, VOF₃, TiF₃, BiF₃, NiF₂, FeF₂, CuF₂, CuF, SnF₂, AgF, CuCl₂, FeCl₃, MnCl₂, and combinations thereof. In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from a lithium transition metal silicate, denoted as Li₂MSiO₄ or Li₂Ma_(x)Mb_(y)SiO₄, wherein M and Ma are selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, or VO; Mb is selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, Ti, Al, B, Sn, or Bi; and x+y≤1.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material is selected from TiS₂, TaS₂, MoS₂, NbSe₃, MnO₂, COO₂, an iron oxide, a vanadium oxide, or a combination thereof.

The cathode active material layer may contain a metal oxide containing vanadium oxide selected from the group consisting of VO₂, Li_(x)VO₂, V₂O₅, Li_(x)V₂O₅, V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₇, V₄O₉, Li_(x)V₄O₉, V₆O₁₃, Li_(x)V₆O₁₃, their doped versions, their derivatives, and combinations thereof, wherein 0.1<x<5.

The cathode active material layer may contain a metal oxide or metal phosphate, selected from a layered compound LiMO₂, spinel compound LiM₂O₄, olivine compound LiMPO₄, silicate compound Li₂MSiO₄, tavorite compound LiMPO₄F, borate compound LiMBO₃, or a combination thereof, wherein M is a transition metal or a mixture of multiple transition metals.

In some embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof.

The cathode active material layer may contain an organic material or polymeric material selected from poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS₂)₃]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN)₆), 5-benzylidene hydantoin, isatine lithium salt, pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi₄), N,N′-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N′-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N′-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAQ), calixquinone, Li₄C₆O₆, Li₂C₆O₆, Li₆C₆O₆, or a combination thereof.

The thioether polymer is selected from poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)](PMTTM), poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), a polymer containing poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, a side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene] (PTKPTB, or poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).

In other embodiments, the cathode active material layer contains an organic material selected from a phthalocyanine compound, such as copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, a chemical derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

The cathode active material is preferably in a form of nanoparticle (spherical, ellipsoidal, and irregular shape), nanowire, nanofiber, nanotube, nanosheet, nanobelt, nanoribbon, nanodisc, nanoplatelet, or nanohorn having a thickness or diameter less than 100 nm. These shapes can be collectively referred to as “particles” unless otherwise specified or unless a specific type among the above species is desired. Further preferably, the cathode active material has a dimension less than 50 nm, even more preferably less than 20 nm, and most preferably less than 10 nm.

In some embodiments, one particle or a cluster of particles may be coated with or embraced by a layer of carbon disposed between the active material particle(s) and the protecting sulfonated elastomer layer (the encapsulating shell). Alternatively or additionally, a carbon layer may be deposited to embrace the encapsulated particle or the encapsulated cluster of multiple cathode active material particles.

The particulate may further contain a graphite or carbon material mixed with the active material particles, which are all encapsulated by the encapsulating shell (but not dispersed within this thin layer of sulfonated elastomer). The carbon or graphite material is selected from polymeric carbon, amorphous carbon, chemical vapor deposition carbon, coal tar pitch, petroleum pitch, mesophase pitch, carbon black, coke, acetylene black, activated carbon, fine expanded graphite particle with a dimension smaller than 100 nm, artificial graphite particle, natural graphite particle, or a combination thereof.

The cathode active material particles may be coated with or embraced by a conductive protective coating (selected from a carbon material, electronically conductive polymer, conductive metal oxide, or conductive metal coating) prior to being encapsulated by the sulfonated elastomer shell.

Preferably and typically, the sulfonated elastomer has a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10⁻⁶ S/cm, more preferably no less than 5×10⁻⁵ S/cm. In certain embodiments, the sulfonated elastomer further contains from 0.1% to 40% by weight (preferably from 1% to 30% by weight) of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in the sulfonated elastomer matrix material.

In some embodiments, the sulfonated elastomeric matrix material contains a material selected from a sulfonated version of natural polyisoprene (e.g. cis-1,4-polyisoprene natural rubber (NR) and trans-1,4-polyisoprene gutta-percha), synthetic polyisoprene (IR for isoprene rubber), polybutadiene (BR for butadiene rubber), chloroprene rubber (CR), polychloroprene (e.g. Neoprene, Baypren etc.), butyl rubber (copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, IIR), including halogenated butyl rubbers (chloro butyl rubber (CIIR) and bromo butyl rubber (BIIR), styrene-butadiene rubber (copolymer of styrene and butadiene, SBR), nitrile rubber (copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile, NBR), EPM (ethylene propylene rubber, a copolymer of ethylene and propylene), EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene rubber, a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene and a diene-component), metallocene-based poly(ethylene-co-octene) (POE) elastomer, poly(ethylene-co-butene) (PBE) elastomer, styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS) elastomer, epichlorohydrin rubber (ECO), polyacrylic rubber (ACM, ABR), silicone rubber (SI, Q, VMQ), fluorosilicone rubber (FVMQ), fluoroelastomers (FKM, and FEPM; such as Viton, Tecnoflon, Fluorel, Aflas and Dai-El), perfluoroelastomers (FFKM: Tecnoflon PFR, Kalrez, Chemraz, Perlast), polyether block amides (PEBA), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSM; e.g. Hypalon), and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, and combinations thereof. Sulfonation imparts higher lithium ion conductivity to the elastomer.

In some preferred embodiments, the sulfonated elastomer further contains a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in an elastomer matrix material, wherein the lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, Li₂C₂O₄, LiOH, LiX, ROCO₂Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO₂Li)₂, (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂, Li₂S, Li_(x)SO_(y), or a combination thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1 and 1≤y≤4.

In some embodiments, the sulfonated elastomer further contains a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed therein, wherein the lithium ion-conducting additive contains a lithium salt selected from lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆), lithium borofluoride (LiBF₄), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.

The proportion of this lithium ion-conducing additive is preferably from 0.1% to 40% by weight, but more preferably from 1% to 25% by weight. The sum of this additive and other additives preferably occupies from 1% to 40% by weight, more preferably from 3% to 35% by weight, and most preferably from 5% to 25% by weight of the resulting composite weight (the elastomer matrix, electron-conducting additive, and lithium ion-conducting additive combined).

In certain preferred embodiments, the elastomeric matrix material may contain a mixture or blend of a sulfonated elastomer and an electron-conducting polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, derivatives thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions of these electron-conducting polymers), or a combination thereof. The proportion of this electron-conducting polymer is preferably from 0.1% to 20% by weight.

In some embodiments, the elastomeric matrix material contains a mixture or blend of a sulfonated elastomer and a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazene, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof. Sulfonation is herein found to impart improved lithium ion conductivity to a polymer. The proportion of this lithium ion-conducting polymer is preferably from 0.1% to 20% by weight. Mixing or dispersion of an additive or reinforcement species in a sulfonated elastomer or rubber may be conducted using solution mixing or melt mixing.

The present invention also provides a powder mass of cathode active material for a lithium battery. The powder mass comprises multiple particulates of a cathode active material, wherein at least one particulate is composed of one or a plurality of the cathode active material particles that are encapsulated by a thin layer of sulfonated elastomer. The encapsulating thin layer of sulfonated elastomer has a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, a fully recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 500%, and a lithium ion conductivity from 10⁻⁷ S/cm to 5×10⁻² S/cm.

The present invention also provides a cathode electrode that contains the presently invented sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated cathode material particles, an optional conductive additive (e.g. expanded graphite flakes, carbon black, acetylene black, or carbon nanotube), and an optional resin binder (typically required).

The present invention also provides a lithium battery containing an optional cathode current collector (e.g. Al foil), the presently invented cathode electrode as described above, an anode active material layer or anode electrode, an optional anode current collector (e.g. Cu foil), an electrolyte in ionic contact with the anode active material layer and the cathode active material layer and an optional porous separator.

There is no limitation on the type of anode active material that can be used in the anode electrode to partner with the invented cathode. For instance, the anode active material may be selected from the group consisting of: (a) silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); (b) alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements; (c) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, or Cd, and their mixtures, composites, or lithium-containing composites; (d) salts and hydroxides of Sn; (e) lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate, lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide; (f) prelithiated versions thereof, (g) particles and foil of Li, Li alloy, or surface-stabilized Li particles having at least 60% by weight of lithium element therein; and (h) combinations thereof.

In some preferred embodiments, the anode active material contains a prelithiated Si, prelithiated Ge, prelithiated Sn, prelithiated SnO_(x), prelithiated SiO_(x), prelithiated iron oxide, prelithiated VO₂, prelithiated Co₃O₄, prelithiated Ni₃O₄, or a combination thereof, wherein x=1 to 2. It may be noted that prelithiation of an anode active material means that this material has been pre-intercalated by or doped with lithium ions up to a weight fraction from 0.1% to 54.7% of Li in the lithiated product.

The lithium battery may be a lithium-ion battery, lithium metal battery (containing lithium metal or lithium alloy as the main anode active material and containing no intercalation-based anode active material), lithium-sulfur battery, or lithium-selenium battery.

The invention also provides a method of producing a powder mass of a cathode active material for a lithium battery, the method comprising: (a) mixing particles of an electron-conducting filler and/or a lithium ion-conducting filler and a sulfonated elastomer or its precursor (e.g. monomer or oligomer) in a liquid medium or solvent to form a suspension; (b) dispersing a plurality of particles of a cathode active material in the suspension to form a slurry; and (c) dispensing the slurry and removing the solvent and/or polymerizing/curing the precursor to form the powder mass, wherein the powder mass comprises multiple particulates of the cathode active material, wherein at least one of the particulates comprises one or a plurality of the cathode active material particles which are encapsulated by a thin layer of sulfonated elastomer. The encapsulating sulfonated elastomer has a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm (preferably from 1 nm to 100 nm), a fully recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 800%, and a lithium ion conductivity from 10⁻⁷ S/cm to 10⁻² S/cm. Preferably, this encapsulating layer material also has an electrical conductivity from 10⁻⁷ S/cm to 100 S/cm when measured at room temperature.

One can disperse an electron-conducting filler and/or a lithium ion-conducting filler in a monomer or oligomer (with or without a solvent; monomer itself being capable of serving as a liquid medium) to form a suspension. A chemical reaction may be optionally initiated between filler particles, if any, and the monomer/oligomer at this stage or later. Cathode active material particles are then dispersed in the suspension to form a slurry. A micro-encapsulation procedure (e.g. spray-drying) is then conducted to produce droplets (particulates), wherein a particulate can contain one or several cathode active material particles embraced/encapsulated by an elastomeric shell. The resulting particulate is then subjected to a polymerization/curing treatment (e.g. via heating and/or UV curing, etc.). If the starting monomer/oligomer already had sulfonate groups or were already sulfonated, the resulting reinforced elastomer shell would be a sulfonated elastomer composite. Otherwise, the resulting mass of particulates may be subsequently subjected to a sulfonating treatment.

Alternatively, one may dissolve a linear or branched chain polymer (but uncured or un-crosslinked) in a solvent to form a polymer solution. Such a polymer can be a sulfonated polymer to begin with, or can be sulfonated during any subsequent stage (e.g. after the particulates are formed). An electron-conducting additive and/or a lithium ion-conducting additive, if desired, are then added into the polymer solution to form a suspension; particles of the cathode active material can be added concurrently or sequentially. The suspension is then subjected to a micro-encapsulation treatment to form particulates. Curing or cross-linking of the elastomer/graphene composite is then allowed to proceed.

Thus, the step of providing the solution and suspension may include (a) sulfonating an elastomer to form a sulfonated elastomer and dissolving the sulfonated elastomer in a solvent to form a polymer solution, or (b) sulfonating the precursor (monomer or oligomer) to obtain a sulfonated precursor (sulfonated monomer or sulfonated oligomer), polymerizing the sulfonated precursor to form a sulfonated elastomer and dissolving the sulfonated elastomer in a solvent to form a solution. Inorganic filler particles (optionally along with an electron-conducting additive and/or a lithium ion-conducting additive) and cathode active material particles are concurrently or sequentially added into the solution to form a suspension.

In certain embodiments, the step of dispensing the slurry and removing the solvent and/or polymerizing/curing the precursor to form the powder mass includes operating a procedure (e.g. micro-encapsulation) selected from pan-coating, air-suspension coating, centrifugal extrusion, vibration-nozzle encapsulation, spray-drying, coacervation-phase separation, interfacial polycondensation and interfacial cross-linking, in-situ polymerization, matrix polymerization, or a combination thereof.

In this method, the step of mixing may include dissolving or dispersing from 0.1% to 40% by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive in the liquid medium or solvent. The lithium ion-conducting additive may be selected from Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, Li₂C₂O₄, LiOH, LiX, ROCO₂Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO₂Li)₂, (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂, Li₂S, Li_(x)SO_(Y), or a combination thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1 and 1≤y≤4. Alternatively or additionally, the lithium ion-conducting additive contains a lithium salt selected from lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆), lithium borofluoride (LiBF₄), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, the slurry further contains an electron-conducting polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof. Alternatively or additionally, the slurry further contains a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazene, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

The method may further comprise mixing multiple particulates of the aforementioned cathode active material, a binder resin, and an optional conductive additive to form a cathode electrode, which is optionally coated on a cathode current collector (e.g. Al foil). The method may further comprise combining an anode electrode, the presently invented cathode electrode (positive electrode), an electrolyte, and an optional porous separator into a lithium battery cell.

The presently invented sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated active material particles meet all of the criteria required of a lithium-ion battery cathode material:

-   -   (a) The protective sulfonated elastomer shell, having both high         elasticity and high strength, has a high fracture toughness and         high resistance to crack formation to avoid disintegration         during repeated cycling.     -   (b) The sulfonated elastomer shell is relatively inert         (inactive) with respect to the electrolyte. Further, since there         is no direct contact between the cathode active material         particles and liquid electrolyte, there is no opportunity for         the transition metal in the cathode active material to catalyze         the decomposition of electrolyte, which otherwise could generate         undesirable chemical species (e.g. volatile molecules) inside         the battery cell.     -   (c) The sulfonated elastomer shell material can be both lithium         ion-conducting and electron-conducting.     -   (d) The encapsulating shell is capable of preventing any organic         cathode active material or certain inorganic cathode active         material (e.g. S, Se, lithium polysulfide, or lithium         polyselenide) from getting dissolved in a liquid electrolyte         and, as such, is capable of helping to prevent the shuttle         effect or other capacity-decaying mechanisms from occurring.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1(A) Schematic of a prior art lithium battery cell, wherein the anode layer is a thin Li foil and the cathode is composed of particles of a cathode active material, a conductive additive (not shown) and a resin binder (not shown).

FIG. 1(B) Schematic of a prior art lithium-ion battery; the anode layer being composed of particles of an anode active material, a conductive additive (not shown) and a resin binder (not shown).

FIG. 2(A) Schematic illustrating the notion that expansion/shrinkage of electrode active material particles, upon lithium insertion and de-insertion during discharge/charge of a prior art lithium-ion battery, can lead to detachment of resin binder from the particles, interruption of the conductive paths formed by the conductive additive, and loss of contact with the current collector;

FIG. 2(B) Several different types of particulates containing filled elastomer-encapsulated cathode active material particles.

FIG. 3 The specific intercalation capacity curves of four lithium cells: cathode containing un-encapsulated V₂O₅ particles, cathode containing un-encapsulated but graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles, cathode containing sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated V₂O₅ particles, and cathode containing sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles.

FIG. 4 The specific capacity values of two lithium battery cells having a cathode active material featuring (1) sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated carbon-coated LiFePO₄ particles and (2) carbon-coated LiFePO₄ particles without sulfonated elastomer encapsulation, respectively.

FIG. 5 The discharge capacity curves of two coin cells having two different types of cathode active materials: (1) sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated metal fluoride particles and (2) non-encapsulated metal fluorides.

FIG. 6 Specific capacities of two lithium-FePc (organic) cells, each having Li foil as an anode active material and FePc/RGO mixture particles as the cathode active material (one cell containing un-encapsulated particles and the other containing particles encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer).

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

This invention is directed at a cathode active material layer (positive electrode layer, not including the cathode current collector) for a lithium secondary battery. This positive electrode comprises a cathode active material that is in a form of a sulfonated elastomer shell-protected particulate. The battery is preferably a secondary battery based on a non-aqueous electrolyte, a polymer gel electrolyte, an ionic liquid electrolyte, a quasi-solid electrolyte, or a solid-state electrolyte. The shape of a lithium secondary battery can be cylindrical, square, button-like, etc. The present invention is not limited to any battery shape or configuration or any type of electrolyte.

As illustrated in FIG. 1(B), a lithium-ion battery cell is typically composed of an anode current collector (e.g. Cu foil), an anode or negative electrode active material layer (i.e. anode layer typically containing particles of an anode active material, conductive additive, and binder), a porous separator and/or an electrolyte component, a cathode or positive electrode active material layer (containing a cathode active material, conductive additive, and resin binder), and a cathode current collector (e.g. Al foil). More specifically, the cathode layer comprises particles of a cathode active material, a conductive additive (e.g. carbon black particles), and a resin binder (e.g. SBR or PVDF). This cathode layer is typically 50-300 μm thick (more typically 100-200 μm) to give rise to a sufficient amount of current per unit electrode area.

In another cell configuration, as illustrated in FIG. 1(A), the anode active material is a lithium metal foil or a layer of packed Li particles supported on an anode current collector, such as a sheet of copper foil. This can be a lithium metal secondary battery, lithium-sulfur battery, or lithium-selenium battery, etc.

In order to obtain a higher energy density lithium-ion cell, the anode in FIG. 1(B) can be designed to contain higher-capacity anode active materials having a composition formula of Li_(a)A (A is a metal or semiconductor element, such as Al and Si, and “a” satisfies 0<a≤5). These materials are of great interest due to their high theoretical capacity, e.g., Li₄Si (3,829 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Si (4,200 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Ge (1,623 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Sn (993 mAh/g), Li₃Cd (715 mAh/g), Li₃Sb (660 mAh/g), Li_(4.4)Pb (569 mAh/g), LiZn (410 mAh/g), and Li₃Bi (385 mAh/g).

As schematically illustrated in FIG. 2(A), one major problem in the current lithium battery is the notion that active material particles can get fragmented and the binder resin can detach from both the active material particles and conductive additive particles due to repeated volume expansion/shrinkage of the active material particles during the charge and discharge cycles. These binder detachment and particle fragmentation phenomena lead to loss of contacts between active material particles and conductive additives and loss of contacts between the active material and its current collector. These adverse effects result in a significantly shortened charge-discharge cycle life.

We have solved these challenging issues that have troubled battery designers and electrochemists alike for more than 30 years by developing a new class of cathode active materials. The cathode active material layer comprises multiple cathode active material particles that are fully embraced or encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer having a recoverable (elastic) tensile strain no less than 2% (up to 800%) under uniaxial tension and a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10⁻⁵ S/cm at room temperature (preferably and more typically from 1×10⁻⁵ S/cm to 5×10⁻² S/cm).

As illustrated in FIG. 2(B), the present invention provides four major types of particulates of sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated cathode active material particles. The first one is a single-particle particulate containing a cathode active material core 10 encapsulated by a high-elasticity sulfonated elastomer shell 12. The second is a multiple-particle particulate containing multiple cathode active material particles 14 (e.g. FeF₃ particles), optionally along with other conductive materials (e.g. particles of graphite or hard carbon, not shown), which are encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer 16. The third is a single-particle particulate containing a cathode active material core 18 coated by a carbon or graphene layer 20 (or other conductive material) further encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer 22. The fourth is a multiple-particle particulate containing multiple cathode active material particles 24 (e.g. FeF₃ particles) coated with a conductive protection layer 26 (carbon, graphene, etc.), optionally along with other active materials or conductive additive, which are encapsulated by a sulfonated elastomer shell 28.

The elastomer refers to a polymer, typically a lightly cross-linked polymer, which exhibits an elastic deformation that is more typically at least 5% when measured (without an additive or reinforcement in the polymer) under uniaxial tension. In the field of materials science and engineering, the “elastic deformation” is defined as a deformation of a material (when being mechanically stressed) that is essentially fully recoverable and the recovery is essentially instantaneous upon release of the load. The elastic deformation is preferably greater than 5%, more preferably greater than 10%, further more preferably greater than 50%, still more preferably greater than 100%, and most preferably greater than 200%. The preferred types of elastomer composites will be discussed later.

The application of the presently invented elastomer composite encapsulation approach is not limited to any particular class of cathode active materials. The cathode active material layer may contain a cathode active material selected from an inorganic material, an organic material, a polymeric material, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material may be selected from a metal oxide, metal phosphate, metal silicide, metal selenide, transition metal sulfide, or a combination thereof.

The inorganic material, as a cathode active material, may be selected from a lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, lithium metal silicide, or a combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic filler for reinforcing the elastomer may be selected from an oxide, carbide, boride, nitride, sulfide, phosphide, or selenide of a transition metal, a lithiated version thereof, or a combination thereof. Preferably, the transition metal is selected from Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Ag, Cd, La, Ta, W, Pt, Au, Hg, a combination thereof, or a combination thereof with Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, Sb, or Bi.

In certain preferred embodiments, the sulfonated elastomer further contains an electron-conducting filler dispersed in the sulfonated elastomer wherein the electron-conducting filler is selected from a carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, nanocarbon particle, metal nanoparticle, metal nanowire, electron-conducting polymer, graphene, or a combination thereof. The graphene may be preferably selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, nitrogenated graphene, hydrogenated graphene, doped graphene, functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof and the graphene preferably comprises single-layer graphene or few-layer graphene, wherein the few-layer graphene is defined as a graphene platelet formed of 2-10 graphene planes. More preferably, the graphene sheets contain 1-5 graphene planes, most preferably 1-3 graphene planes (i.e. single-layer, double-layer, or triple-layer graphene). The electron-conducting polymer is preferably selected from (but not limited to) polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

Preferably and typically, the sulfonated elastomer, when measured without any additive, has a lithium ion conductivity from 10⁻⁷ S/cm to 5×10⁻² S/cm, more preferably and typically greater than 10⁻⁵ S/cm, further more preferably and typically greater than 10⁻⁴ S/cm, and most preferably no less than 10⁻³ S/cm. In some embodiments, the sulfonated elastomer further contains from 0.1% to 40% (preferably 1% to 35%) by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed therein.

The sulfonated elastomer must have a high elasticity (high elastic deformation value). By definition, an elastic deformation is a deformation that is fully recoverable upon release of the mechanical stress and the recovery process is essentially instantaneous (no significant time delay). An elastomer, such as a vulcanized natural rubber, can exhibit a tensile elastic deformation from 2% up to 1,000% (10 times of its original length). Sulfonation of the rubber reduces the elasticity to 800%. With the addition of 0.01%-50% of a conductive filler (e.g. CNT and graphene sheets), the tensile elastic deformation of a sulfonated elastomer/rubber is reduced to typically from 2% to 500%. It may be noted that although a metal typically has a high ductility (i.e. can be extended to a large extent without breakage), the majority of the deformation is plastic deformation (non-recoverable) and elastic deformation occurs to only a small extent (typically <1% and more typically <0.2%).

A broad array of sulfonated elastomers can be used to encapsulate a cathode active material particle or multiple particles. Encapsulation means substantially fully embracing the particle(s) without allowing the particle to be in direct contact with electrolyte in the battery. The sulfonated elastomer may be selected from a sulfonated version of natural polyisoprene (e.g. cis-1,4-polyisoprene natural rubber (NR) and trans-1,4-polyisoprene gutta-percha), synthetic polyisoprene (IR for isoprene rubber), polybutadiene (BR for butadiene rubber), chloroprene rubber (CR), polychloroprene (e.g. Neoprene, Baypren etc.), butyl rubber (copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, IIR), including halogenated butyl rubbers (chloro butyl rubber (CIIR) and bromo butyl rubber (BIIR), styrene-butadiene rubber (copolymer of styrene and butadiene, SBR), nitrile rubber (copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile, NBR), EPM (ethylene propylene rubber, a copolymer of ethylene and propylene), EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene rubber, a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene and a diene-component), metallocene-based poly(ethylene-co-octene) (POE) elastomer, poly(ethylene-co-butene) (PBE) elastomer, styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS) elastomer, epichlorohydrin rubber (ECO), polyacrylic rubber (ACM, ABR), silicone rubber (SI, Q, VMQ), fluorosilicone rubber (FVMQ), fluoroelastomers (FKM, and FEPM; such as Viton, Tecnoflon, Fluorel, Aflas and Dai-El), perfluoroelastomers (FFKM: Tecnoflon PFR, Kalrez, Chemraz, Perlast), polyether block amides (PEBA), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSM; e.g. Hypalon), and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, and combinations thereof.

The urethane-urea copolymer film usually consists of two types of domains, soft domains and hard domains. Entangled linear backbone chains consisting of poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) units constitute the soft domains, while repeated methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) and ethylene diamine (EDA) units constitute the hard domains. A lithium ion-conducting additive can be incorporated in the soft domains or other more amorphous zones.

The electron-conducting filler may be selected from a carbon nanotube (CNT), carbon nanofiber, graphene, nanocarbon particles, metal nanowires, etc. A graphene sheet or nanographene platelet (NGP) composed of one basal plane (graphene plane) or multiple basal planes stacked together in the thickness direction. In a graphene plane, carbon atoms occupy a 2-D hexagonal lattice in which carbon atoms are bonded together through strong in-plane covalent bonds. In the c-axis or thickness direction, these graphene planes may be weakly bonded together through van der Waals forces. An NGP can have a platelet thickness from less than 0.34 nm (single layer) to 100 nm (multi-layer). For the present electrode use, the preferred thickness is <10 nm, more preferably <3 nm (or <10 layers), and most preferably single-layer graphene. Thus, the presently invented sulfonated elastomer/graphene composite shell preferably contains mostly single-layer graphene, but could make use of some few-layer graphene (less than 10 layers or 10 graphene planes). The graphene sheet may contain a small amount (typically <25% by weight) of non-carbon elements, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, fluorine, and oxygen, which are attached to an edge or surface of the graphene plane.

Graphene sheets may be oxidized to various extents during their preparation, resulting in graphite oxide (GO) or graphene oxide. Hence, in the present context, graphene preferably or primarily refers to those graphene sheets containing no or low oxygen content; but, they can include GO of various oxygen contents. Further, graphene may be fluorinated to a controlled extent to obtain graphite fluoride, or can be doped using various dopants, such as boron and nitrogen.

Graphite oxide may be prepared by dispersing or immersing a laminar graphite material (e.g., powder of natural flake graphite or synthetic graphite) in an oxidizing agent, typically a mixture of an intercalant (e.g., concentrated sulfuric acid) and an oxidant (e.g., nitric acid, hydrogen peroxide, sodium perchlorate, potassium permanganate) at a desired temperature (typically 0-70° C.) for a sufficient length of time (typically 30 minutes to 5 days). In order to reduce the time required to produce a precursor solution or suspension, one may choose to oxidize the graphite to some extent for a shorter period of time (e.g., 30 minutes) to obtain graphite intercalation compound (GIC). The GIC particles are then exposed to a thermal shock, preferably in a temperature range of 600-1,100° C. for typically 15 to 60 seconds to obtain exfoliated graphite or graphite worms, which are optionally (but preferably) subjected to mechanical shearing (e.g. using a mechanical shearing machine or an ultrasonicator) to break up the graphite flakes that constitute a graphite worm. The un-broken graphite worms or individual graphite flakes are then re-dispersed in water, acid, or organic solvent and ultrasonicated to obtain a graphene polymer solution or suspension.

The pristine graphene material is preferably produced by one of the following three processes: (A) Intercalating the graphitic material with a non-oxidizing agent, followed by a thermal or chemical exfoliation treatment in a non-oxidizing environment; (B) Subjecting the graphitic material to a supercritical fluid environment for inter-graphene layer penetration and exfoliation; or (C) Dispersing the graphitic material in a powder form to an aqueous solution containing a surfactant or dispersing agent to obtain a suspension and subjecting the suspension to direct ultrasonication.

In Procedure (A), a particularly preferred step comprises (i) intercalating the graphitic material with a non-oxidizing agent, selected from an alkali metal (e.g., potassium, sodium, lithium, or cesium), alkaline earth metal, or an alloy, mixture, or eutectic of an alkali or alkaline metal; and (ii) a chemical exfoliation treatment (e.g., by immersing potassium-intercalated graphite in ethanol solution).

In Procedure (B), a preferred step comprises immersing the graphitic material to a supercritical fluid, such as carbon dioxide (e.g., at temperature T>31° C. and pressure P>7.4 MPa) and water (e.g., at T>374° C. and P>22.1 MPa), for a period of time sufficient for inter-graphene layer penetration (tentative intercalation). This step is then followed by a sudden de-pressurization to exfoliate individual graphene layers. Other suitable supercritical fluids include methane, ethane, ethylene, hydrogen peroxide, ozone, water oxidation (water containing a high concentration of dissolved oxygen), or a mixture thereof.

In Procedure (C), a preferred step comprises (a) dispersing particles of a graphitic material in a liquid medium containing therein a surfactant or dispersing agent to obtain a suspension or slurry; and (b) exposing the suspension or slurry to ultrasonic waves (a process commonly referred to as ultrasonication) at an energy level for a sufficient length of time to produce the separated nanoscaled platelets, which are pristine, non-oxidized NGPs.

Reduced graphene oxide can be produced with an oxygen content no greater than 25% by weight, preferably below 20% by weight, further preferably below 5%. Typically, the oxygen content is between 5% and 20% by weight. The oxygen content can be determined using chemical elemental analysis and/or X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

The laminar graphite materials used in the prior art processes for the production of the GIC, graphite oxide, and subsequently made exfoliated graphite, flexible graphite sheets, and graphene platelets are, in most cases, natural graphite. However, the present invention is not limited to natural graphite. The starting material may be selected from the group consisting of natural graphite, artificial graphite (e.g., highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, HOPG), graphite oxide, graphite fluoride, graphite fiber, carbon fiber, carbon nanofiber, carbon nanotube, mesophase carbon microbead (MCMB) or carbonaceous microsphere (CMS), soft carbon, hard carbon, and combinations thereof. All of these materials contain graphite crystallites that are composed of layers of graphene planes stacked or bonded together via van der Waals forces. In natural graphite, multiple stacks of graphene planes, with the graphene plane orientation varying from stack to stack, are clustered together. In carbon fibers, the graphene planes are usually oriented along a preferred direction. Generally speaking, soft carbons are carbonaceous materials obtained from carbonization of liquid-state, aromatic molecules. Their aromatic ring or graphene structures are more or less parallel to one another, enabling further graphitization. Hard carbons are carbonaceous materials obtained from aromatic solid materials (e.g., polymers, such as phenolic resin and polyfurfuryl alcohol). Their graphene structures are relatively randomly oriented and, hence, further graphitization is difficult to achieve even at a temperature higher than 2,500° C. But, graphene sheets do exist in these carbons.

Graphene sheets may be oxidized to various extents during their preparation, resulting in graphite oxide or graphene oxide (GO). Hence, in the present context, graphene preferably or primarily refers to those graphene sheets containing no or low oxygen content; but, they can include GO of various oxygen contents. Further, graphene may be fluorinated to a controlled extent to obtain graphene fluoride.

Pristine graphene may be produced by direct ultrasonication (also known as liquid phase production) or supercritical fluid exfoliation of graphite particles. These processes are well-known in the art. Multiple pristine graphene sheets may be dispersed in water or other liquid medium with the assistance of a surfactant to form a suspension.

Fluorinated graphene or graphene fluoride is herein used as an example of the halogenated graphene material group. There are two different approaches that have been followed to produce fluorinated graphene: (1) fluorination of pre-synthesized graphene: This approach entails treating graphene prepared by mechanical exfoliation or by CVD growth with fluorinating agent such as XeF₂, or F-based plasmas; (2) Exfoliation of multilayered graphite fluorides: Both mechanical exfoliation and liquid phase exfoliation of graphite fluoride can be readily accomplished [F. Karlicky, et al. “Halogenated Graphenes: Rapidly Growing Family of Graphene Derivatives” ACS Nano, 2013, 7 (8), pp 6434-6464].

Interaction of F₂ with graphite at high temperature leads to covalent graphite fluorides (CF)_(n) or (C₂F)_(n), while at low temperatures graphite intercalation compounds (GIC) C_(x)F (2≤x≤24) form. In (CF)_(n) carbon atoms are sp3-hybridized and thus the fluorocarbon layers are corrugated consisting of trans-linked cyclohexane chairs. In (C₂F)_(n) only half of the C atoms are fluorinated and every pair of the adjacent carbon sheets are linked together by covalent C—C bonds. Systematic studies on the fluorination reaction showed that the resulting F/C ratio is largely dependent on the fluorination temperature, the partial pressure of the fluorine in the fluorinating gas, and physical characteristics of the graphite precursor, including the degree of graphitization, particle size, and specific surface area. In addition to fluorine (F₂), other fluorinating agents may be used, although most of the available literature involves fluorination with F₂ gas, sometimes in presence of fluorides.

For exfoliating a layered precursor material to the state of individual layers or few-layers of graphene planes (hexagonal carbon atom planes), it is necessary to overcome the attractive forces between adjacent layers and to further stabilize the layers. This may be achieved by either covalent modification of the graphene surface by functional groups or by non-covalent modification using specific solvents, surfactants, polymers, or donor-acceptor aromatic molecules. The process of liquid phase exfoliation includes ultra-sonic treatment of a graphite fluoride in a liquid medium.

The nitrogenation of graphene can be conducted by exposing a graphene material, such as graphene oxide, to ammonia at high temperatures (200-400° C.). Nitrogenated graphene could also be formed at lower temperatures by a hydrothermal method; e.g. by sealing GO and ammonia in an autoclave and then increased the temperature to 150-250° C. Other methods to synthesize nitrogen doped graphene include nitrogen plasma treatment on graphene, arc-discharge between graphite electrodes in the presence of ammonia, ammonolysis of graphene oxide under CVD conditions, and hydrothermal treatment of graphene oxide and urea at different temperatures.

In some embodiments, the sulfonated elastomer further contains a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed therein. The lithium ion-conducting additive may be selected from Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, Li₂C₂O₄, LiOH, LiX, ROCO₂Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO₂Li)₂, (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂, Li₂S, Li_(x)SO_(Y), or a combination thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1 and 1≤y≤4.

Alternatively, the lithium ion-conducting additive may contain a lithium salt selected from lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆), lithium borofluoride (LiBF₄), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the lithium ion-conducting additive or filler is a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazene, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a derivative thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions), or a combination thereof.

The sulfonated elastomer may be mixed with an electron-conducting polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, derivatives thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions), or a combination thereof.

Some elastomers are originally in an unsaturated chemical state (unsaturated rubbers) that can be cured by sulfur vulcanization to form a cross-linked polymer that is highly elastic (hence, an elastomer). Prior to vulcanization, these polymers or oligomers are soluble in an organic solvent to form a polymer solution. Graphene sheets, as an example of a conductive additive, can be chemically functionalized to contain functional groups (e.g. —OH, —COOH, NH₂, etc.) that can react with the polymer or its oligomer. The graphene-bonded oligomer or polymer may then be dispersed in a liquid medium (e.g. a solvent) to form a solution or suspension. Particles of a cathode active material (e.g. LiCoO₂ nanoparticles) can be dispersed in this polymer solution or suspension to form a slurry of an active material particle-polymer mixture. This suspension can then be subjected to a solvent removal treatment while individual particles remain substantially separated from one another. The graphene-bonded polymer precipitates out to deposit on surfaces of these active material particles. This can be accomplished, for instance, via spray drying.

Unsaturated rubbers that can be vulcanized to become elastomer include natural polyisoprene (e.g. cis-1,4-polyisoprene natural rubber (NR) and trans-1,4-polyisoprene gutta-percha), synthetic polyisoprene (IR for isoprene rubber), polybutadiene (BR for butadiene rubber), chloroprene rubber (CR), polychloroprene (e.g. Neoprene, Baypren etc.), butyl rubber (copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, IIR), including halogenated butyl rubbers (chloro butyl rubber (CIIR) and bromo butyl rubber (BIIR), styrene-butadiene rubber (copolymer of styrene and butadiene, SBR), nitrile rubber (copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile, NBR), Some elastomers are saturated rubbers that cannot be cured by sulfur vulcanization; they are made into a rubbery or elastomeric material via different means: e.g. by having a copolymer domain that holds other linear chains together. Graphene sheets or other additives can be solution- or melt-dispersed into the elastomer to form an elastomer composite. Each of these elastomer composites can be used to encapsulate particles of an active material by one of several means: melt mixing (followed by pelletizing and ball-milling, for instance), solution mixing (dissolving the active material particles in an uncured polymer, monomer, or oligomer, with or without an organic solvent) followed by drying (e.g. spray drying), interfacial polymerization, or in situ polymerization of elastomer in the presence of active material particles.

Saturated rubbers and related elastomers in this category include EPM (ethylene propylene rubber, a copolymer of ethylene and propylene), EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene rubber, a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene and a diene-component), epichlorohydrin rubber (ECO), polyacrylic rubber (ACM, ABR), silicone rubber (SI, Q, VMQ), fluorosilicone rubber (FVMQ), fluoroelastomers (FKM, and FEPM; such as Viton, Tecnoflon, Fluorel, Aflas and Dai-El), perfluoroelastomers (FFKM: Tecnoflon PFR, Kalrez, Chemraz, Perlast), polyether block amides (PEBA), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSM; e.g. Hypalon), and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), protein resilin, and protein elastin. Polyurethane and its copolymers (e.g. urea-urethane copolymer) are particularly useful elastomeric shell materials for encapsulating active material particles.

Several micro-encapsulation processes require the elastomer materials to be dissolvable in a solvent. Fortunately, all the elastomers used herein are soluble in some common solvents. Even for those rubbers that are not very soluble after vulcanization, the un-cured polymer (prior to vulcanization or curing) can be readily dissolved in a common organic solvent to form a solution. This solution can then be used to encapsulate solid particles via several of the micro-encapsulation methods to be discussed in what follows. Upon encapsulation, the elastomer shell is then vulcanized or cured. Some examples of rubbers and their solvents are polybutadiene (2-methyl pentane+n-hexane or 2,3-dimethylbutane), styrene-butadiene rubber (toluene, benzene, etc.), butyl rubber (n-hexane, toluene, cyclohexane), etc. The SBR can be vulcanized with different amounts of sulfur and accelerator at 433° K in order to obtain different network structures and crosslink densities. Butyl rubber (IIR) is a copolymer of isobutylene and a small amount of isoprene (e.g. about 98% polyisobutylene with 2% isoprene distributed randomly in the polymer chain). Elemental sulfur and organic accelerators (such as thiuram or thiocarbamates) can be used to cross-link butyl rubber to different extents as desired. Thermoplastic elastomers are also readily soluble in solvents.

There are three broad categories of micro-encapsulation methods that can be implemented to produce elastomer-encapsulated particles of a cathode active material: physical methods, physico-chemical methods, and chemical methods. The physical methods include pan-coating, air-suspension coating, centrifugal extrusion, vibration nozzle, and spray-drying methods. The physico-chemical methods include ionotropic gelation and coacervation-phase separation methods. The chemical methods include interfacial polycondensation, interfacial cross-linking, in-situ polymerization, and matrix polymerization.

Pan-Coating Method:

The pan coating process involves tumbling the active material particles in a pan or a similar device while the encapsulating material (e.g. elastomer monomer/oligomer, elastomer melt, elastomer/solvent solution) is applied slowly until a desired encapsulating shell thickness is attained.

Air-Suspension Coating Method:

In the air suspension coating process, the solid particles (core material) are dispersed into the supporting air stream in an encapsulating chamber. A controlled stream of a polymer-solvent solution (elastomer or its monomer or oligomer dissolved in a solvent; or its monomer or oligomer alone in a liquid state) is concurrently introduced into this chamber, allowing the solution to hit and coat the suspended particles. These suspended particles are encapsulated (fully coated) with polymers while the volatile solvent is removed, leaving a very thin layer of polymer (elastomer or its precursor, which is cured/hardened subsequently) on surfaces of these particles. This process may be repeated several times until the required parameters, such as full-coating thickness (i.e. encapsulating shell or wall thickness), are achieved. The air stream which supports the particles also helps to dry them, and the rate of drying is directly proportional to the temperature of the air stream, which can be adjusted for optimized shell thickness.

In a preferred mode, the particles in the encapsulating zone portion may be subjected to re-circulation for repeated coating. Preferably, the encapsulating chamber is arranged such that the particles pass upwards through the encapsulating zone, then are dispersed into slower moving air and sink back to the base of the encapsulating chamber, enabling repeated passes of the particles through the encapsulating zone until the desired encapsulating shell thickness is achieved.

Centrifugal Extrusion:

Active material particles may be encapsulated using a rotating extrusion head containing concentric nozzles. In this process, a stream of core fluid (slurry containing particles of an active material dispersed in a solvent) is surrounded by a sheath of shell solution or melt. As the device rotates and the stream moves through the air it breaks, due to Rayleigh instability, into droplets of core, each coated with the shell solution. While the droplets are in flight, the molten shell may be hardened or the solvent may be evaporated from the shell solution. If needed, the capsules can be hardened after formation by catching them in a hardening bath. Since the drops are formed by the breakup of a liquid stream, the process is only suitable for liquid or slurry. A high production rate can be achieved. Up to 22.5 kg of microcapsules can be produced per nozzle per hour and extrusion heads containing 16 nozzles are readily available.

Vibrational Nozzle Encapsulation Method:

Core-shell encapsulation or matrix-encapsulation of an active material can be conducted using a laminar flow through a nozzle and vibration of the nozzle or the liquid. The vibration has to be done in resonance with the Rayleigh instability, leading to very uniform droplets. The liquid can consist of any liquids with limited viscosities (1-50,000 mPa·s): emulsions, suspensions or slurry containing the active material. The solidification can be done according to the used gelation system with an internal gelation (e.g. sol-gel processing, melt) or an external (additional binder system, e.g. in a slurry).

Spray-Drying:

Spray drying may be used to encapsulate particles of an active material when the active material is dissolved or suspended in a melt or polymer solution. In spray drying, the liquid feed (solution or suspension) is atomized to form droplets which, upon contacts with hot gas, allow solvent to get vaporized and thin polymer shell to fully embrace the solid particles of the active material.

Coacervation-Phase Separation:

This process consists of three steps carried out under continuous agitation:

-   (a) Formation of three immiscible chemical phases: liquid     manufacturing vehicle phase, core material phase and encapsulation     material phase. The core material is dispersed in a solution of the     encapsulating polymer (elastomer or its monomer or oligomer). The     encapsulating material phase, which is an immiscible polymer in     liquid state, is formed by (i) changing temperature in polymer     solution, (ii) addition of salt, (iii) addition of non-solvent,     or (iv) addition of an incompatible polymer in the polymer solution. -   (b) Deposition of encapsulation shell material: core material being     dispersed in the encapsulating polymer solution, encapsulating     polymer material coated around core particles, and deposition of     liquid polymer embracing around core particles by polymer adsorbed     at the interface formed between core material and vehicle phase; and -   (c) Hardening of encapsulating shell material: shell material being     immiscible in vehicle phase and made rigid via thermal,     cross-linking, or dissolution techniques.

Interfacial Polycondensation and Interfacial Cross-Linking:

Interfacial polycondensation entails introducing the two reactants to meet at the interface where they react with each other. This is based on the concept of the Schotten-Baumann reaction between an acid chloride and a compound containing an active hydrogen atom (such as an amine or alcohol), polyester, polyurea, polyurethane, or urea-urethane condensation. Under proper conditions, thin flexible encapsulating shell (wall) forms rapidly at the interface. A solution of the active material and a diacid chloride are emulsified in water and an aqueous solution containing an amine and a polyfunctional isocyanate is added. A base may be added to neutralize the acid formed during the reaction. Condensed polymer shells form instantaneously at the interface of the emulsion droplets. Interfacial cross-linking is derived from interfacial polycondensation, wherein cross-linking occurs between growing polymer chains and a multi-functional chemical groups to form an elastomer shell material.

In-Situ Polymerization:

In some micro-encapsulation processes, active materials particles are fully coated with a monomer or oligomer first. Then, direct polymerization of the monomer or oligomer is carried out on the surfaces of these material particles.

Matrix Polymerization:

This method involves dispersing and embedding a core material in a polymeric matrix during formation of the particles. This can be accomplished via spray-drying, in which the particles are formed by evaporation of the solvent from the matrix material. Another possible route is the notion that the solidification of the matrix is caused by a chemical change.

A variety of synthetic methods may be used to sulfonate an elastomer or rubber: (i) exposure to sulfur trioxide in vapor phase or in solution, possibly in presence of Lewis bases such as triethyl phosphate, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane, or amines; (ii) chlorosulfonic acid in diethyl ether; (iii) concentrated sulfuric acid or mixtures of sulfuric acid with alkyl hypochlorite; (iv) bisulfites combined to dioxygen, hydrogen peroxide, metallic catalysts, or peroxo derivates; and (v) acetyl sulfate.

Sulfonation of an elastomer or rubber may be conducted before, during, or after curing of the elastomer or rubber. Further, sulfonation of the elastomer or rubber may be conducted before or after the particles of an electrode active material are embraced or encapsulated by the elastomer/rubber or its precursor (monomer or oligomer). Sulfonation of an elastomer or rubber may be accomplished by exposing the elastomer/rubber to a sulfonation agent in a solution state or melt state, in a batch manner or in a continuous process. The sulfonating agent may be selected from sulfuric acid, sulfonic acid, sulfur trioxide, chlorosulfonic acid, a bisulfate, a sulfate (e.g. zinc sulfate, acetyl sulfate, etc.), a mixture thereof, or a mixture thereof with another chemical species (e.g. acetic anhydride, thiolacetic acid, or other types of acids, etc.). In addition to zinc sulfate, there are a wide variety of metal sulfates that may be used as a sulfonating agent; e.g. those sulfates containing Mg, Ca, Co, Li, Ba, Na, Pb, Ni, Fe, Mn, K, Hg, Cr, and other transition metals, etc.

For instance, a triblock copolymer, poly(styrene-isobutylene-styrene) or SIBS, may be sulfonated to several different levels ranging from 0.36 to 2.04 mequiv./g (13 to 82 mol % of styrene; styrene being 19 mol % of the unsulfonated block copolymer). Sulfonation of SIBS may be performed in solution with acetyl sulfate as the sulfonating agent. First, acetic anhydride reacts with sulfuric acid to form acetyl sulfate (a sulfonating agent) and acetic acid (a by-product). Then, excess water is removed since anhydrous conditions are required for sulfonation of SIBS. The SIBS is then mixed with the mixture of acetyl sulfate and acetic acid. Such a sulfonation reaction produces sulfonic acid substituted to the para-position of the aromatic ring in the styrene block of the polymer. Elastomers having an aromatic ring may be sulfonated in a similar manner.

A sulfonated elastomer also may be synthesized by copolymerization of a low level of functionalized (i.e. sulfonated) monomer with an unsaturated monomer (e.g. olefinic monomer, isoprene monomer or oligomer, butadiene monomer or oligomer, etc.).

Example 1: Sulfonation of Triblock Copolymer Poly(Styrene-Isobutylene-Styrene) or SIBS

An example of the sulfonation procedure used in this study is summarized as follows: a 10% (w/v) solution of SIBS (50 g) and a desired amount of graphene oxide sheets (0.15 TO 405 by wt.) in methylene chloride (500 ml) was prepared. The solution was stirred and refluxed at approximately 40 8 C, while a specified amount of acetyl sulfate in methylene chloride was slowly added to begin the sulfonation reaction. Acetyl sulfate in methylene chloride was prepared prior to this reaction by cooling 150 ml of methylene chloride in an ice bath for approximately 10 min. A specified amount of acetic anhydride and sulfuric acid was then added to the chilled methylene chloride under stirring conditions. Sulfuric acid was added approximately 10 min after the addition of acetic anhydride with acetic anhydride in excess of a 1:1 mole ratio. This solution was then allowed to return to room temperature before addition to the reaction vessel.

After approximately 5 h, the reaction was terminated by slowly adding 100 ml of methanol. The reacted polymer solution was then precipitated with deionized water. The precipitate was washed several times with water and methanol, separately, and then dried in a vacuum oven at 50 8 C for 24 h. This washing and drying procedure was repeated until the pH of the wash water was neutral. After this process, the final polymer yield was approximately 98% on average. This sulfonation procedure was repeated with different amounts of acetyl sulfate to produce several sulfonated polymers with various levels of sulfonation or ion-exchange capacities (IECs). The mol % sulfonation is defined as: mol %=(moles of sulfonic acid/moles of styrene)×100%, and the IEC is defined as the mille-equivalents of sulfonic acid per gram of polymer (mequiv./g).

After sulfonation and washing of each polymer, the S—SIBS samples were dissolved in a mixed solvent of toluene/hexanol (85/15, w/w) to form solutions having polymer concentrations ranging from 5 to 2.5% (w/v). Particles of a desired cathode active material, along with a desired amount of conducting additive (e.g. graphene sheets or CNTs) were then added into the polymer solution samples to obtain slurry samples. The slurry samples were separately spray-dried to form sulfonated elastomer-embraced particles.

Alternatively, sulfonation may be conducted on the sulfonated elastomer layer after this encapsulating layer is form (e.g. after the active material particle(s) is/are encapsulated.

Example 2: Synthesis of Sulfonated Polybutadiene (PB) by Free Radical Addition of Thiolacetic Acid (TAA) Followed by In Situ Oxidation with Performic Acid

A representative procedure is given as follows. PB (8.0 g) was dissolved in toluene (800 mL) under vigorous stirring for 72 h at room temperature in a 1 L round-bottom flask. Benzophenone (BZP) (0.225 g; 1.23 mmol; BZP/olefin molar ratio=1:120) and TAA (11.9 mL; 0.163 mol, TAA/olefin molar ratio=1.1) were introduced into the reactor, and the polymer solution was irradiated for 1 h at room temperature with UV light of 365 nm and power of 100 W.

The resulting thioacetylated polybutadiene (PB-TA) was isolated by pouring 200 mL of the toluene solution in a plenty of methanol and the polymer recovered by filtration, washed with fresh methanol, and dried in vacuum at room temperature (Yield=3.54 g). Formic acid (117 mL; 3.06 mol; HCOOH/olefin molar ratio=25), along with a desired amount of cathode active material particles, from 10 to 100 grams) were added to the toluene solution of PB-TA at 50° C. followed by slow addition of 52.6 mL of hydrogen peroxide (35 wt %; 0.61 mol; H₂O₂/olefin molar ratio=5) in 20 min. We would like to caution that the reaction is autocatalytic and strongly exothermic. The resulting slurry was spray-dried to obtain reinforced sulfonated polybutadiene (PB-SA-encapsulated cathode active material particles.

Example 3: Synthesis of Sulfonated SBS

Sulfonated styrene-butadiene-styrene triblock copolymer (SBS) based elastomer was directly synthesized. First, SBS (optionally along with graphene sheets) is first epoxidized by performic acid formed in situ, followed by ring-opening reaction with an aqueous solution of NaHSO₃. In a typical procedure, epoxidation of SBS was carried out via reaction of SBS in cyclohexane solution (SBS concentration=11 g/100 mL) with performic acid formed in situ from HCOOH and 30% aqueous H₂O₂ solution at 70° C. for 4 h, using 1 wt % poly(ethylene glycol)/SBS as a phase transfer catalyst. The molar ratio of H₂O₂/HCOOH was 1. The product (ESBS) was precipitated and washed several times with ethanol, followed by drying in a vacuum dryer at 60° C.

Subsequently, ESBS was first dissolved in toluene to form a solution with a concentration of 10 g/100 mL, into which was added 5 wt % TEAB/ESBS as a phase transfer catalyst and 5 wt % DMA/ESBS as a ring-opening catalyst. Herein, TEAB=tetraethyl ammonium bromide and DMA=N,N-dimethyl aniline. An aqueous solution of NaHSO₃ and Na₂SO₃ (optionally along with graphene sheets or other desired additives, if not added earlier) was then added with vigorous stirring at 60° C. for 7 h at a molar ratio of NaHSO₃/epoxy group at 1.8 and a weight ratio of Na₂SO₃/NaHSO₃ at 36%. This reaction allows for opening of the epoxide ring and attaching of the sulfonate group according to the following reaction:

The reaction was terminated by adding a small amount of acetone solution containing antioxidant. The mixture was washed with distilled water three times, then precipitated by ethanol, followed by drying in a vacuum dryer at 50° C. It may be noted that particles of an electrode active material may be added during various stages of the aforementioned procedure (e.g. right from the beginning, or prior to the ring opening reaction). Preferably, the optional electron-conducting additive or lithium ion-conducting additive is added before or during the ring opening reaction and the cathode active material is added afterwards.

Example 4: Synthesis of Sulfonated SBS by Free Radical Addition of Thiolacetic Acid (TAA) Followed by In Situ Oxidation with Performic Acid

A representative procedure is given as follows. SBS (8.000 g) in toluene (800 mL) was left under vigorous stirring for 72 hours at room temperature and heated later on for 1 h at 65° C. in a 1 L round-bottom flask until the complete dissolution of the polymer. Thus, benzophenone (BZP, 0.173 g; 0.950 mmol; BZP/olefin molar ratio=1:132) and TAA (8.02 mL; 0.114 mol, TAA/olefin molar ratio=1.1) were added, and the polymer solution was irradiated for 4 h at room temperature with UV light of 365 nm and power of 100 W. To isolate a fraction of the thioacetylated sample, 20 mL of the polymer solution was treated with plenty of methanol, and the polymer was recovered by filtration, washed with fresh methanol, and dried in vacuum at room temperature. The toluene solution containing the thioacetylated polymer was equilibrated at 50° C., and 107.4 mL of formic acid (2.84 mol; HCOOH/olefin molar ratio=27.5) and 48.9 mL of hydrogen peroxide (35 wt %; 0.57 mol; H₂O₂/olefin molar ratio=5.5) were added in about 15 min. It may be cautioned that the reaction is autocatalytic and strongly exothermic!Particles of the desired cathode active materials were added before or after this reaction. The resulting slurry was stirred for 1 h, and then most of the solvent was distilled off in vacuum at 35° C. Finally, the slurry containing the sulfonated elastomer was coagulated in a plenty of acetonitrile, isolated by filtration, washed with fresh acetonitrile, and dried in vacuum at 35° C. to obtain sulfonated elastomers.

Other elastomers (e.g. polyisoprene, EPDM, EPR, polyurethane, etc.) were sulfonated in a similar manner. Alternatively, all the rubbers or elastomers can be directly immersed in a solution of sulfuric acid, a mixture of sulfuric acid and acetyl sulfate, or other sulfonating agent discussed above to produce sulfonated elastomers/rubbers. Again, cathode active material particles may be added at various stages of the procedure.

Example 5: Graphene Oxide from Sulfuric Acid Intercalation and Exfoliation of MCMBs

MCMB (mesocarbon microbeads) were supplied by China Steel Chemical Co. This material has a density of about 2.24 g/cm³ with a median particle size of about 16 μm. MCMBs (10 grams) were intercalated with an acid solution (sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and potassium permanganate at a ratio of 4:1:0.05) for 48 hours. Upon completion of the reaction, the mixture was poured into deionized water and filtered. The intercalated MCMBs were repeatedly washed in a 5% solution of HCl to remove most of the sulfate ions. The sample was then washed repeatedly with deionized water until the pH of the filtrate was neutral. The slurry was dried and stored in a vacuum oven at 60° C. for 24 hours. The dried powder sample was placed in a quartz tube and inserted into a horizontal tube furnace pre-set at a desired temperature, 800° C.-1,100° C. for 30-90 seconds to obtain graphene samples. A small quantity of graphene was mixed with water and ultrasonicated at 60-W power for 10 minutes to obtain a suspension. A small amount was sampled out, dried, and investigated with TEM, which indicated that most of the NGPs were between 1 and 10 layers. The oxygen content of the graphene powders (GO or RGO) produced was from 0.1% to approximately 25%, depending upon the exfoliation temperature and time.

Example 6: Oxidation and Exfoliation of Natural Graphite

Graphite oxide was prepared by oxidation of graphite flakes with sulfuric acid, sodium nitrate, and potassium permanganate at a ratio of 4:1:0.05 at 30° C. for 48 hours, according to the method of Hummers [U.S. Pat. No. 2,798,878, Jul. 9, 1957]. Upon completion of the reaction, the mixture was poured into deionized water and filtered. The sample was then washed with 5% HCl solution to remove most of the sulfate ions and residual salt and then repeatedly rinsed with deionized water until the pH of the filtrate was approximately 4. The intent was to remove all sulfuric and nitric acid residue out of graphite interstices. The slurry was dried and stored in a vacuum oven at 60° C. for 24 hours.

The dried, intercalated (oxidized) compound was exfoliated by placing the sample in a quartz tube that was inserted into a horizontal tube furnace pre-set at 1,050° C. to obtain highly exfoliated graphite. The exfoliated graphite was dispersed in water along with a 1% surfactant at 45° C. in a flat-bottomed flask and the resulting graphene oxide (GO) suspension was subjected to ultrasonication for a period of 15 minutes to obtain a homogeneous graphene-water suspension.

Example 7: Preparation of Pristine Graphene Sheets

Pristine graphene sheets were produced by using the direct ultrasonication or liquid-phase exfoliation process. In a typical procedure, five grams of graphite flakes, ground to approximately 20 μm in sizes, were dispersed in 1,000 mL of deionized water (containing 0.1% by weight of a dispersing agent, Zonyl® FSO from DuPont) to obtain a suspension. An ultrasonic energy level of 85 W (Branson S450 Ultrasonicator) was used for exfoliation, separation, and size reduction of graphene sheets for a period of 15 minutes to 2 hours. The resulting graphene sheets were pristine graphene that had never been oxidized and were oxygen-free and relatively defect-free. There are substantially no other non-carbon elements.

Example 8: Preparation of Graphene Fluoride (GF) Sheets

Several processes have been used by us to produce GF, but only one process is herein described as an example. In a typical procedure, highly exfoliated graphite (HEG) was prepared from intercalated compound C₂F.xClF₃. HEG was further fluorinated by vapors of chlorine trifluoride to yield fluorinated highly exfoliated graphite (FHEG). A pre-cooled Teflon reactor was filled with 20-30 mL of liquid pre-cooled ClF₃, and then the reactor was closed and cooled to liquid nitrogen temperature. Subsequently, no more than 1 g of HEG was put in a container with holes for ClF₃ gas to access the reactor. After 7-10 days, a gray-beige product with approximate formula C₂F was formed. GF sheets were then dispersed in halogenated solvents to form suspensions.

Example 9: Preparation of Nitrogenated Graphene Sheets

Graphene oxide (GO), synthesized in Example 12, was finely ground with different proportions of urea and the pelletized mixture heated in a microwave reactor (900 W) for 30 s. The product was washed several times with deionized water and vacuum dried. In this method graphene oxide gets simultaneously reduced and doped with nitrogen. The products obtained with graphene/urea mass ratios of 1/0.5, 1/1 and 1/2 are designated as N-1, N-2 and N-3 respectively and the nitrogen contents of these samples were 14.7, 18.2 and 17.5 wt. % respectively as determined by elemental analysis. These nitrogenated graphene sheets remain dispersible in water.

Example 10: Cathode Particulates Containing V₂O₅ Particles Encapsulated by a Shell of Sulfonated Elastomer

Cathode active material layers were prepared from V₂O₅ particles and graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles, respectively. V₂O₅ particles were commercially available. Graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles were prepared in-house. In a typical experiment, vanadium pentoxide gels were obtained by mixing V₂O₅ in a LiCl aqueous solution. The Li⁺-exchanged gels obtained by interaction with LiCl solution (the Li:V molar ratio was kept as 1:1) was mixed with a GO suspension and then placed in a Teflon-lined stainless steel 35 ml autoclave, sealed, and heated up to 180° C. for 12 h. After such a hydrothermal treatment, the green solids were collected, thoroughly washed, ultrasonicated for 2 minutes, and dried at 70° C. for 12 h followed by mixing with another 0.1% GO in water, ultrasonicating to break down nanobelt sizes, and then spray-drying at 200° C. to obtain graphene-embraced V₂O₅ composite particulates.

For electrochemical testing, the working electrodes were prepared by mixing 85 wt. % active material (sulfonated elastomer encapsulated or non-encapsulated particulates of V₂O₅, respectively), 7 wt. % acetylene black (Super-P), and 8 wt. % polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder dissolved in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinoe (NMP) to form a slurry of 5 wt. % total solid content. After coating the slurries on Al foil, the electrodes were dried at 120° C. in vacuum for 2 h to remove the solvent before pressing. Then, the electrodes were cut into a disk (4=12 mm) and dried at 100° C. for 24 h in vacuum. Electrochemical measurements were carried out using CR2032 (3V) coin-type cells with lithium metal as the counter/reference electrode, Celgard 2400 membrane as separator, and 1 M LiPF₆ electrolyte solution dissolved in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC) (EC-DEC, 1:1 v/v). The cell assembly was performed in an argon-filled glove-box. The CV measurements were carried out using a CH-6 electrochemical workstation at a scanning rate of 1 mV/s.

The electrochemical performance of the particulates of sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated V₂O₅ particles and that of non-protected V₂O₅ were evaluated by galvanostatic charge/discharge cycling at a current density of 50 mA/g, using a LAND electrochemical workstation.

Summarized in FIG. 3 are the specific intercalation capacity curves of four lithium cells: cathode containing un-encapsulated V₂O₅ particles, cathode containing un-encapsulated but graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles, cathode containing sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated V₂O₅ particles, and cathode containing sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated graphene-embraced V₂O₅ particles. As the number of cycles increases, the specific capacity of the un-encapsulated V₂O₅ electrode drops at the fastest rate. In contrast, the presently invented sulfonated elastomer encapsulation provides the battery cell with a significantly more stable and higher specific capacity for a large number of cycles. These data have clearly demonstrated the surprising and superior performance of the presently invented sulfonated elastomer encapsulation approach.

The protecting sulfonated elastomer encapsulation shell appears to be capable of reversibly deforming to a great extent without breakage when the active material particles expand and shrink. The sulfonated elastomer also remains chemically bonded to the binder resin when the encapsulated particles expand or shrink. In contrast, the PVDF binder is broken or detached from some of the non-encapsulated active material particles. These were observed by using SEM to examine the surfaces of the electrodes recovered from the battery cells after some numbers of charge-discharge cycles.

Example 11: Sulfonated Elastomer-Encapsulated Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) Particles

Commercially available lithium iron phosphate (LFP) particles were used in the present study. The battery cells from the sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated LFP particles and non-coated LFP particles were prepared using a procedure described in Example 1. FIG. 4 shows that the cathode prepared according to the presently invented sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated particulate approach offers a significantly more stable and higher reversible capacity compared to the un-coated LFP particle-based. The sulfonated elastomer is more capable of holding the active material particles and conductive additive together, significantly improving the structural integrity of the active material electrode. The sulfonated elastomer also acts to isolate the electrolyte from the active material yet still allowing for easy diffusion of lithium ions.

Example 12: Metal Fluoride and Metal Chloride Particles Encapsulated by a Sulfonated Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR)/Graphene Composite

Commercially available powders of CoF₃, MnF₃, FeF₃, VF₃, VOF₃, TiF₃, and BiF₃ were subjected to high-intensity ball-milling to reduce the particle size down to approximately 0.5-2.3 μm. Each type of these metal fluoride particles, along with graphene sheets (as a conductive additive), were encapsulated with a thin layer of sulfonated SBR shell (prepared in Example 3) via the spray-drying method, followed by curing of the butadiene segment of the SBR chains to impart high elasticity to the SBR. For comparison, some amount of FeF₃ nanoparticles was encapsulated by a carbon shell. Carbon encapsulation is well-known in the art. Un-protected FeF₃ nanoparticles from the same batch were also investigated to determine and compare the cycling behaviors of the lithium-ion batteries containing these particles as the cathode active material.

Shown in FIG. 5 are the discharge capacity curves of two coin cells having two different types of cathode active materials: (1) sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated metal fluoride particles and (2) non-encapsulated metal fluorides. These results have clearly demonstrated that the sulfonated elastomer encapsulation strategy provides excellent protection against capacity decay of a lithium metal battery featuring a high-capacity cathode active material.

The high-elasticity sulfonated elastomer appears to be capable of reversibly deforming without breakage when the cathode active material particles expand and shrink. The elastomer also remains chemically bonded to the binder resin when the active particles expand or shrink. In contrast, both SBR (as a binder, not an encapsulating shell) and PVDF, the two conventional binder resins, are broken or detached from some of the non-encapsulated active material particles. The sulfonated elastomer has contributed to the structural stability of the electrode layer. These were observed by using SEM to examine the surfaces of the electrodes recovered from the battery cells after some numbers of charge-discharge cycles.

Example 13: Metal Naphthalocyanine-Reduced Graphene Oxide (FePc/RGO) Hybrid Particulates Encapsulated by a Sulfonated Elastomer

Particles of combined FePc/graphene sheets were obtained by ball-milling a mixture of FePc and RGO in a milling chamber for 30 minutes. The resulting FePc/RGO mixture particles were potato-like in shape. Some of these mixture particles were encapsulated by a high-elasticity elastomer using the pan-coating procedure. Two lithium cells were prepared, each containing a Li foil anode, a porous separator, and a cathode layer of FePc/RGO particles (encapsulated or un-encapsulated).

The cycling behaviors of these 2 lithium cells are shown in FIG. 6, which indicates that the lithium-organic cell having a sulfonated elastomer-encapsulated particulates in the cathode layer exhibits a significantly more stable cycling response. This encapsulation elastomer reduces or eliminates direct contact between the catalytic transition metal element (Fe) and the electrolyte, yet still being permeable to lithium ions. This elastomer shell also completely eliminates the dissolution of naphthalocyanine compounds in the liquid electrolyte. This approach has significantly increased the cycle life of all lithium-organic batteries.

Example 14: Effect of Lithium Ion-Conducting Additive in an Elastomer Shell

A wide variety of lithium ion-conducting additives were added to several different sulfonated elastomer materials to prepare encapsulation shell materials for protecting core particles of active material. We have discovered that these elastomer materials are suitable encapsulation shell materials provided that their lithium ion conductivity at room temperature is no less than 10⁻⁷ S/cm. With these materials, lithium ions appear to be capable of readily diffusing in and out of the encapsulation shell having a thickness no greater than 1 μm. For thicker shells (e.g. 10 μm), a lithium ion conductivity at room temperature no less than 10⁻⁴ S/cm would be required.

TABLE 1 Lithium ion conductivity of various sulfonated elastomer composite compositions as a shell material for protecting active material particles. Lithium- Sample conducting Sulfonated elastomer Li-ion No. additive (0.3-2 μm thick) conductivity (S/cm) E-1s Li₂CO₃ + 70-99% polyurethane, 5.8 × 10⁻⁶ to (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂ 2% RGO 5.6 × 10⁻³ S/cm E-2s Li₂CO₃ + 65-99% polyisoprene, 2.6 × 10⁻⁵ to (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂ 8% pristine graphene 8.5 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm E-3s Li₂CO₃ + 65-80% SBR, 15% 9.3 × 10⁻⁶ to (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂ RGO 9.7 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm D-4s Li₂CO₃ + 70-99% urethane-urea, 2.4 × 10⁻⁶ to (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂ 12% nitrogenated 6.8 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm graphene D-5s Li₂CO₃ + 75-99% polybutadiene 2.4 × 10⁻⁵ to (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂ 8.8 × 10⁻³ S/cm B1s LiF + LiOH + 80-99% chloroprene 2.4 × 10⁻⁶ to Li₂C₂O₄ rubber 7.7 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm B2s LiF + HCOLi 80-99% EPDM 6.6 × 10⁻⁶ to 6.1 × 10⁻³ S/cm B3s LiOH 70-99% polyurethane 4.6 × 10⁻⁵ to 4.8 × 10⁻³ S/cm B4s Li₂CO₃ 70-99% polyurethane 5.8 × 10⁻⁵ to 5.7 × 10⁻³ S/cm B5s Li₂C₂O₄ 70-99% polyurethane 2.7 × 10⁻⁵ to 3.7 × 10⁻³ S/cm B6s Li₂CO₃ + LiOH 70-99% polyurethane 2.9 × 10⁻⁵ to 4.7 × 10⁻³ S/cm C1s LiClO₄ 70-99% urethane-urea 6.3 × 10⁻⁵ to 5.4 × 10⁻³ S/cm C2s LiPF₆ 70-99% urethane-urea 5.4 × 10⁻⁵ to 2.6 × 10⁻³ S/cm C3s LiBF₄ 70-99% urethane-urea 3.6 × 10⁻⁵ to 4.8 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm C4s LiBOB + LiNO₃ 70-99% urethane-urea 9.7 × 10⁻⁶ to 4.2 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm S1s Sulfonated 85-99% SBR 8.6 × 10⁻⁶ to polyaniline 9.8 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm S2s Sulfonated SBR 85-99% SBR 8.6 × 10⁻⁶ to 6.3 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm S3s Sulfonated 80-99% chlorosulfonated 5.8 × 10⁻⁶ to PVDF polyethylene (CS-PE) 6.4 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm S4s Polyethylene 80-99% CS-PE 6.9 × 10⁻⁶ to oxide 5.4 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm

Some advantages of the present invention may be summarized in the following:

-   -   (1) The sulfonated elastomer encapsulation strategy is         surprisingly effective in alleviating the cathode         expansion/shrinkage-induced capacity decay problems.     -   (2) The encapsulation of high-capacity cathode active material         particles by carbon or other non-elastomeric protective         materials does not provide much benefit in terms of improving         cycling stability of a lithium-ion battery     -   (3) Sulfonation improves the lithium ion conductivity of an         elastomer and, hence, power density of the resulting battery.     -   (4) This encapsulation elastomer strategy reduces or eliminates         direct contact between the catalytic transition metal element         (e.g. Fe, Mn, Ni, Co, etc.) commonly used in a cathode active         material and the electrolyte, thereby reducing/eliminating         catalytic decomposition of the electrolyte. 

We claim:
 1. A cathode electrode for a lithium battery, said cathode electrode comprising multiple particulates of a cathode active material, wherein at least one of said particulates comprises one or a plurality of particles of a cathode active material being encapsulated by a thin layer of a sulfonated elastomeric material that has a fully recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 800%, a lithium ion conductivity from 10⁻⁷ S/cm to 5×10⁻² S/cm at room temperature, and an encapsulating shell thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm.
 2. The cathode electrode of claim 1, wherein said sulfonated elastomeric material comprises a material selected from the group consisting of sulfonated natural polyisoprene, sulfonated synthetic polyisoprene, sulfonated polybutadiene, sulfonated chloroprene rubber, sulfonated polychloroprene, sulfonated butyl rubber, sulfonated styrene-butadiene rubber, sulfonated nitrile rubber, sulfonated ethylene propylene rubber, sulfonated ethylene propylene diene rubber, sulfonated metallocene-based poly(ethylene-co-octene) (POE) elastomer, sulfonated poly(ethylene-co-butene) (PBE) elastomer, sulfonated styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS) elastomer, sulfonated epichlorohydrin rubber, sulfonated polyacrylic rubber, sulfonated silicone rubber, sulfonated fluorosilicone rubber, sulfonated perfluoroelastomers, sulfonated polyether block amides, sulfonated chlorosulfonated polyethylene, sulfonated ethylene-vinyl acetate polymer, sulfonated thermoplastic elastomer, sulfonated protein resilin, sulfonated protein elastin, sulfonated ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, sulfonated polyurethane, sulfonated urethane-urea copolymer, and combinations thereof.
 3. The cathode electrode of claim 1, wherein said sulfonated elastomeric material further comprises an electron-conducting filler dispersed in said elastomeric material wherein said electron-conducting filler is selected from the group consisting of carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, nanocarbon particle, metal nanoparticle, metal nanowire, electron-conducting polymer, graphene, and combinations thereof, wherein said graphene is selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, nitrogenated graphene, hydrogenated graphene, doped graphene, functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof.
 4. The cathode electrode of claim 3, wherein said electron-conducting polymer is selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.
 5. The cathode electrode of claim 1, wherein said cathode active material is selected from an inorganic material, an organic material, a polymeric material, or a combination thereof.
 6. The cathode electrode of claim 5, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a metal oxide, metal phosphate, metal silicide, metal selenide, transition metal sulfide, sulfur, lithium polysulfide, selenium, lithium selenide, or a combination thereof.
 7. The cathode electrode of claim 5, wherein said inorganic material is selected from the group consisting of lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, lithium metal silicide, and combinations thereof.
 8. The cathode electrode of claim 5, wherein said inorganic material is selected from the group consisting of metal fluoride or metal chloride including the group consisting of CoF₃, MnF₃, FeF₃, VF₃, VOF₃, TiF₃, BiF₃, NiF₂, FeF₂, CuF₂, CuF, SnF₂, AgF, CuCl₂, FeCl₃, MnCl₂, and combinations thereof.
 9. The cathode electrode of claim 5, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a lithium transition metal silicate, denoted as Li₂MSiO₄ or Li₂Ma_(x)Mb_(y)SiO₄, wherein M and Ma are selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, or VO; Mb is selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, Ti, Al, B, Sn, or Bi; and x+y≤1.
 10. The cathode electrode of claim 5, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof.
 11. The cathode electrode of claim 5, wherein said inorganic material is selected from TiS₂, TaS₂, MoS₂, NbSe₃, MnO₂, CoO₂, an iron oxide, a vanadium oxide, or a combination thereof.
 12. The cathode electrode of claim 6, wherein said metal oxide comprises a vanadium oxide selected from the group consisting of VO₂, Li_(x)VO₂, V₂O₅, Li_(x)V₂O₅, V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₇, V₄O₉, Li_(x)V₄O₉, V₆O₁₃, Li_(x)V₆O₁₃, their doped versions, their derivatives, and combinations thereof, wherein 0.1<x<5.
 13. The cathode electrode of claim 6, wherein said metal oxide or metal phosphate is selected from a layered compound LiMO₂, spinel compound LiM₂O₄, olivine compound LiMPO₄, silicate compound Li₂MSiO₄, tavorite compound LiMPO₄F, borate compound LiMBO₃, or a combination thereof, wherein M is a transition metal or a mixture of multiple transition metals.
 14. The cathode electrode of claim 5, wherein said inorganic material is selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof.
 15. The cathode electrode of claim 5, wherein said organic material or polymeric material is selected from the group consisting of poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS₂)₃]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN)₆), 5-benzylidene hydantoin, isatine lithium salt, pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi₄), N,N′-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N′-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N′-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAQ), calixquinone, Li₄C₆O₆, Li₂C₆O₆, Li₆C₆O₆, and combinations thereof.
 16. The cathode electrode of claim 15, wherein said thioether polymer is selected from the group consisting of poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)] (PMTTM), poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), a polymer containing poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, a side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene] (PTKPTB, and poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).
 17. The cathode electrode of claim 5, wherein said organic material contains a phthalocyanine compound selected from the group consisting of copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, a chemical derivative thereof, and combinations thereof.
 18. The cathode electrode of claim 1, wherein said cathode active material is in a form of nanoparticle, nanowire, nanofiber, nanotube, nanosheet, nanobelt, nanoribbon, nanodisc, nanoplatelet, or nanohorn having a thickness or diameter from 0.5 nm to 100 nm.
 19. The cathode electrode of claim 1, wherein said one or a plurality of particles is coated with a layer of carbon.
 20. The cathode electrode of claim 1, wherein said particulate further comprises a graphite or carbon material encapsulated therein.
 21. The cathode electrode of claim 20, wherein said graphite or carbon material is selected from the group consisting of polymeric carbon, amorphous carbon, chemical vapor deposition carbon, coal tar pitch, petroleum pitch, mesophase pitch, carbon black, coke, acetylene black, activated carbon, fine expanded graphite particle with a dimension smaller than 100 nm, artificial graphite particle, natural graphite particle, and combinations thereof.
 22. The cathode electrode of claim 1, wherein said sulfonated elastomeric material further contains from 0.1% to 40% by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in said sulfonated elastomeric material.
 23. The cathode electrode of claim 22, wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, Li₂C₂O₄, LiOH, LiX, ROCO₂Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO₂Li)₂, (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂, Li₂S, Li_(x)SO_(y), or a combination thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1 and 1≤y≤4.
 24. The cathode electrode of claim 22, wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive contains a lithium salt selected from lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆), lithium borofluoride (LiBF₄), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.
 25. The cathode electrode of claim 22, wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive contains a lithium ion-conducting polymer is selected from the group consisting of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazene, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a sulfonated derivative thereof, and combinations thereof.
 26. A powder mass of a cathode active material for a lithium battery cathode electrode, said powder mass comprising multiple particulates of a cathode active material, wherein at least one of said particulates comprises one or a plurality of particles of said cathode active material being encapsulated by a thin layer of a sulfonated elastomeric material, wherein said encapsulating thin layer of sulfonated elastomeric material has a thickness from 1 nm to 10 μm, a fully recoverable tensile strain from 2% to 800%, and a lithium ion conductivity from 10⁻⁷ S/cm to 5×10⁻² S/cm.
 27. The powder mass of claim 26, wherein said sulfonated elastomeric material comprises a material selected from the group consisting of natural polyisoprene, synthetic polyisoprene, polybutadiene, chloroprene rubber, polychloroprene, butyl rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, nitrile rubber, ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene rubber, metallocene-based poly(ethylene-co-octene) elastomer, poly(ethylene-co-butene) elastomer, styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene elastomer, epichlorohydrin rubber, polyacrylic rubber, silicone rubber, fluorosilicone rubber, perfluoroelastomers, polyether block amides, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene-vinyl acetate, thermoplastic elastomer, protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, sulfonated versions thereof, and combinations thereof.
 28. The powder mass of claim 26, wherein said sulfonated elastomeric material further comprises an electron-conducting filler dispersed in said sulfonated elastomeric material wherein said electron-conducting filler is selected from a carbon nanotube, carbon nanofiber, nanocarbon particle, metal nanoparticle, metal nanowire, electron-conducting polymer, graphene, or a combination thereof, wherein said graphene is selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, nitrogenated graphene, hydrogenated graphene, doped graphene, functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof and said graphene comprises single-layer graphene or few-layer graphene, wherein said few-layer graphene is defined as a graphene platelet formed of less than 10 graphene planes.
 29. The powder mass of claim 26, further comprising graphite particles, carbon particles, mesophase microbeads, carbon or graphite fibers, carbon nanotubes, graphene sheets, or a combination thereof mixed with said multiple particulates.
 30. The powder mass of claim 26, wherein said sulfonated elastomeric material further contains from 0.1% to 40% by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in said sulfonated elastomeric material.
 31. The powder mass of claim 30, wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, Li₂C₂O₄, LiOH, LiX, ROCO₂Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO₂Li)₂, (CH₂OCO₂Li)₂, Li₂S, Li_(X)SO_(y), or a combination thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x≤1 and 1≤y≤4.
 32. The powder mass of claim 30, wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive contains a lithium salt selected from lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆), lithium borofluoride (LiBF₄), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF₂C₂O₄), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF₃(CF₂CF₃)₃), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.
 33. The powder mass of claim 28, wherein said electron-conducting polymer is selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.
 34. A lithium battery containing an optional cathode current collector, the cathode electrode as defined in claim 1, an anode active material layer, an optional anode current collector, an electrolyte in ionic contact with said anode active material layer and said cathode active material layer, and an optional porous separator disposed between said anode active material layer and said cathode active material layer.
 35. The lithium battery of claim 34, which is a lithium-ion battery, lithium metal battery, lithium-sulfur battery, lithium-selenium battery, or lithium-air battery. 